Psychology and Scientific Method Essay Example for Free

Psychology and Scientific Method Essay There are many arguments that debunk the idea that psychology could ever be a ‘pure science’. In any event, psychology has been touted by many a philosopher as a pseudo-science. This is primarily because science itself has a fixed method by which they conduct scientific experiments. We discuss precisely what it is that makes a theory scientific, how theories can be related to evidence and the principal issues involved in evaluating a theory. We also look at what it is that a science of psychology should study. What aspects of psychology can be defined as scientific and what aspects are thoroughly based on conjecture? Can we really call psychology a scientific medium? The observable is what science studies. Freud was initially concerned with studying the unseen, while observing behaviors (Hays, 1964: 27). He believed that the insanity that is presented to the outside world was due to a complex internal mental mechanism (Hays, 1964: 27). However, Freud also fell short of one thing, hard evidence that these mental processes existed. Scientific method determines that there are 4 or 5 steps the researcher has to take in order to make the experiment valid in the eyes of the scientific community. Physics lecturer Jose Wudka states that these steps include: 1. Observation; 2. Hypothesis; 3. Prediction; 4. Test the prediction with experiment (Wudka, 1998). The last step may be that the prediction needs to be retested and the hypothesis revisited. If we take Freud as an example, his experiments were based almost entirely on observation with no empirical data to either prove or disprove his hypotheses. Theory remains just a theory until is proved as fact. Theories are therefore related to evidence in a crucial way. Firstly, there has to be evidence of something that can be studied: for instance in criminal justice we have a bullet cap left behind at a crime. This bullet may be lying in a certain way and with the added presence of gunshot residue (cordite) can help investigators to formulate a hypothesis about what happened with the particular crime. With the case of Freud for instance, we can observe behaviors of children or even adults, but we cannot say where it comes from without getting inside the head. This makes the evidence inadmissible and the theory remains just that – a theory. Secondly, evidence that is presented, has to be tested. This means that the evidence must relate to the theory it is trying to legitimate. In this case, the evidence either proves the theory or it forces the experimenter to return to the theory and rework it. A theory can be evaluated by means of this same testing procedure, key issues being predominantly about validity, verifiability and reliability. Take for instance the normal experimental procedure for empirical research that includes the presentation of a valid sample group that is anonymous and whose records are either thus or confidential. An example of theory testing in psychology that does follow the scientific method is that of medical and electrical testing. One particular research example in psychology is that of Electro Shock Therapy. In this case the treatment studied is reversed in that the EST was used to treat asthmatics, successfully. This case studied asthmatics brought in for EST after intense supervision prior to hospitalization. The patients were monitored before, during and after the treatment to see whether there is a relationship between hysteria and asthma (Cohen and Holbrook, 1947: 213). In this case the patients themselves provide the data necessary for testing the hypothesis. The hypothesis was that there was a relationship between hysteria and asthma. The results showed not only a relationship, but I significant reaction to Electro Shock Treatment (Cohen and Holbrook, 1947: 214). In other research, EST is studied for its effect on schizophrenia rather than the usual bipolar disorder. This research revealed that EST may be useful in the treatment of this psychotic illness. This especially when combined with medication (ScienceDaily, 2005). These research projects were conducted under strict supervision and with documentation the entire process. On the other side of the coin, there are arguments that also dispel scientific method. William McComas of the Rossier School of Education cites 15 myths about scientific method that he considers to be principal issues. In the scope of this paper we cannot discuss all of McComas’ issues but a few will be discussed. The first of these is that hypotheses become theories and then become laws. This is not always the case since sometimes the evidence does not uphold the hypothesis. He also says that theory is not always absolute. Theory can only be absolute if there are no exceptions and in psychology particularly, there are almost always exceptions. Science and scientific method are also not always absolute proof, nor does it always answer all the questions (McComas, 1998: 2-9). In tune with the fact that the evidence does not always support the hypothesis, science does also not always represent reality but functions as a model around which scientific developments can be made (McComas, 1998: 9-18). Furthermore and specifically in psychology terms, these theories are flouted by the presence of some elements in a patient that do not fit the ‘textbook’ description of a certain ailment. For instance, it could be said that most cases of borderline personality disorder come from upper to middle class sectors and develop this type of disorder as a textbook concern, not all BPD patients are upper to middle class. This is merely an example of the type of issue that faces the social sciences where individuals cannot be controlled in the way that plant slides or blood tests can be. The science of psychology is about people and the nuances thereof. It is aware that humans are temperamental and also subject to the actions of other people. This means that psychology can be studied as an observation, by viewing the behaviors of people and documenting them. Psychology cannot be studied in the same way as other sciences can be, despite the fact that in empirical sciences there are also issues of compliance. If we consider that communicable diseases such as HIV/Aids can be physically examined, that blood cells and antibodies can be made visible and studied in their physical form, psychology is not the same. Inroads have been made to attempt to clarify tests done decades earlier, such as Pavlov’s conditioning studies, but unless a method becomes available to view thought processes, these theories remain unproved. The visible is the first step to studying science, but psychology hits a wall after that. We know certain aspects of psychology, such as schizophrenia is as much a neurological disorder as a psychiatric one, but there are other psychological issues we do not know. This means that psychology has to be studied in a multidisciplinary way, rather than as purely scientific. In qualitative research as in quantitative, issues of evaluation are the same. In some psychiatric cases, a patient may also have medical problems, such as diabetes, epilepsy or malnutrition and these can be physically seen. There are indeed ways in which psychology fails the test of scientific method, and therefore falls into the category of ‘pseudo science’. However, there are issues in pure sciences that also fall short of the elitist idea of science. Films such Stanley Kubrick’s â€Å"A Clockwork Orange† explore the idea of experimentation with the human brain, but to undergo such testing even with the consent of volunteers, would be considered inhumane. It seems to be ethical to test chemicals on animals or to test explosives in remote areas, but not ethical to perform potentially dangerous tests on human brains. This leaves psychological testing with the likes of psychometric testing and theories, yet again. As discussed, scientific method is reliant on having the evidence to back it up, whereas psychological is based on assumption to a large extent. Psychological profiling is an example of this in that given the evidence presented, a criminal can be profiled by the marks he leaves behind. Seldom is this knowledge enough to prove someone is guilty of not.

Love and Marriage an Affliction or an Alliance: Deceit and Betrayal in

During the Middle Ages and Renaissance period marriage and love were idealized, divine and celebrated. Weddings were large events that included the entire families of both the groom and the bride. Reality was different; women were viewed as being fickle, inferior to men and a possession of men. Women had very little, if any, choice in who they would marry. Marriages were arranged so that both families would benefit in gaining wealth or power. Even though the ruler of England for over 4 decades was female, women were still not respected. Women were kept at home and not allowed to take place in public events. In Shakespeare’s Richard III, male and female relationships are displayed as deeply cynical and are based on lies, lust and political gain. First, the relationship between Lady Anne and Richard is not the only, but one example, of a relationship that is based on lies. As Lady Anne mourns over the murder of her father-in-law Henry VI, Richard comes and greets her with â€Å"sweet saint† (1.2.49) and â€Å"bolsters this greeting with a string of compliments, to which she responds with curses† (Miner, 47). Richard says that the reason he murdered Henry VI and Edward is because of her beauty. â€Å"Your beauty was the cause of that effect/ Your beauty, that did haunt me in my sleep/ To undertake the death of all the world (1.2.126-128)†. In saying this, Richard â€Å"directs culpability from himself and onto the female figure† (Miner, 47). Richard thought that â€Å"her beauty served as incentive for murder† (Miner, 48). But he lied; he killed both to get closer to the throne, and wooed Anne for the same reason. Second, the relationship between Princess Elizabeth and Richard serves as an example of one that is based on lust. Since Elizabeth â€Å"remains t... ...chard are used as political gain and the new King Richmond is crowned. The basis’s of these relationships are weak and did not, or in some cases, will not last. Richard realizes that Anne is no longer any use to him, and makes a plan to kill her. â€Å"Rumour it abroad / The Anne my wife is very grievous sick / I will take order for her keeping close (4.2.51-53)†. Queen Elizabeth saves her daughter from Richard and sends a proposal to Richmond. Richmond may try to form a closer bond with Elizabeth, or abuse his new power as king. Therefore, the examples in the play give us the message that, relationships that are not based on love, personality and happiness will end unsuccessfully. â€Å"Ay me, for aught that I could ever read / Could ever hear by tale or history / The course of true love never did run smooth (Shakespeare, "A Midsummer Night's Dream" 1.1.132-134)†.

Medical Bioethical Essay

My newspaper article was about a woman named Samantha Burton, a pregnant woman who was forced to be hospitalized. She was 25 weeks pregnant and forced on â€Å"bed rest†. Although Burton’s doctor confirmed that she was not in labor. Burton’s doctor took matters in his own hands and came back with an attorney forcing Samantha Burton to stay in the hospital against her will. The attorney was on line with the judge John C. Cooper. Ms. Burton wanted to obtain prenatal care somewhere else and the courts ordered her to stay. In the ruling, the judge said, â€Å"The state had a right to ensure that children receive medical treatment which is necessary for the preservation of life and health†. â€Å"Does the state own the inside of a woman’s womb that it can kind of intervene at will†? No, I say in my personal opinion and believe in Pro-choice of the â€Å"fetus†. I know smoking cigarette’s is wrong while pregnant but I have heard and read about worse that mother’s do while pregnant. According to legal precedents, Abrams said, doctors should have determined if the fetus was â€Å"viable,† or could survive outside of the womb without medical heroics. There also should have been a second opinion, he said. I believe this is a prime example of why we need the â€Å"patient’s bill of rights† and the use of needing a second opinion. I was very shocked to read this newspaper article about this poor woman and everything she went thru for the state of medical and media views of her baby. This is a good view on medical ethics. I hope it doesn’t happen to another woman. We have the right to do what we will with our bodies and the state or hospital can’t force us to anything. I hope I covered everything in my paper. My paper is a bioethical and legal I believe. Thank you.

Exploration Of A Real World Issue Of Faith - 1651 Words

Exploration of a real-world issue of faith in society? 6 Northwest University Hidden Worldview Essay Same Sex Marriage Donniella Davis UCOR 1043/1001 Professor Ben Thomas June 5 th 2016 . Look back twenty-five years ago, on same sex marriage was a ?thought experiment? in our culture. The idea promoted primarily by those on the left and other cultures who?noticed amount of?boundaries to personal freedom and behavior. (April 6th, 2013 Dr.Jim Eckman).Just Seventeen years ago Congress pass a Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) which define a marriage, as a union between a man and women. In recent years, the debate has moved beyond questions of individual rights and proper family formation to include questions that pit religious liberty against non-discrimination policies. While all laws legalizing same-sex marriage contain some conscience protections allowing churches and other religious groups to refuse to marry gay and lesbian couples,Show MoreRelatedPragmatism, By Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, And John Dewey1553 Words   |  7 Pagespluralistic view of religion which can, in my view, allow for a more universal faith. As Dewey takes a more concrete position on the dilemma of naturalism and supernaturalism, it is perhaps best to start with his views on supernatural belief and then later explore the more complicated view of supernaturalism that James takes. In A Common Faith, Dewey attempts to build his naturalistic view of religion into a type of faith that still allows for a religious attitude but removes religion, and ultimatelyRead MoreDifferences Between Christianity And Judaism Essay848 Words   |  4 Pageshad a basic understanding, yet you still found yourself confused? How can two of the world s most prominent and popular religions be so much alike, yet so different? I want to explore the differences and similarities between Christianity and Judaism in an attempt to create more religious tolerance. Exploration and education lead to understanding and only when you understand can you feel compelled to navigate real relationships with your spiritual brothers. Christians and Jews all worship t he sameRead MoreThe Free Exercise Clause And The Freedom Of Speech1583 Words   |  7 Pagesinvolving people â€Å"experiencing difficulty in practicing their religious faith because of governmental regulation, intrusion, or prohibition in one form or another† (Christianlaw.org) The basis of this research focus’ specifically on the question of the balance between religious rights and the other constitutionally given rights. This paper will go over and define the right’s given and will examine some of the court cases and issues involving the question and balance of religious rights and libertiesRead MoreVocational Stewardship For The Common Good By Amy Sherman988 Words   |  4 Pagesat most of their waking hours at church. The other 95 percent are spent out in the world. This illustrates the importance of why this book matters. Sherman starts off by setting the tone for readers – she gives a background as to why she found it necessary that she write thi s book – and how she read a book by Michael Lindsey in which he discussed research of prominent evangelical business leaders and how their faith impacts their behaviors and decisions at work. A few stood out, while the rest statedRead MoreThe Da Vinci Code: Faith, Fact, and the Conspiracies Behind Them1576 Words   |  7 Pagesoffense at its religious content† (Reidy 1). The reaction described by Reidy is the most common reaction of those of the Christian faith. Readers more open to the possibility of there being truth in Brown’s novel become huge fans of the book. In Reidy’s article, he quotes reviews from readers found on amazon.com, â€Å"The Da Vinci Code is, in many ways, a further exploration of the Bible† (Reidy 1). The differing reactions from religious readers shows the different levels of truth people are willing toRead MorePersuasive Essay On Space Exploration1554 Words   |  7 PagesSpace, the final frontier as many like to call it. H owever we dont have access to intricate spaceships, and high tech space programs well ahead of their time. No. Space exploration has been at a slow crawl ever since the end of the space race in 1975, and since then Americans have lost all interest. Although, this doesnt mean Americans are at fault for the lack of progress in our galatic progress, rather its more along the lines of miscommunication. With technology constantly advancing, and moreRead MoreAn Expert And A Disciple For An Extended Period1663 Words   |  7 Pageseffect does culture have on an expert in a discipline and their resultant work? Knowledge is created, and it is in this creation process that disagreements between experts develop.    Natural science is a branch of science that deals with the physical world including but not limited to biology and is one area of knowledge that causes disagreements between experts. Therefore, a situation dealing with the biological makeup of a woman and the ways that a breast functions falls under the natural science areaRead MoreReligion in Rap Music1550 Words   |  7 Pagesmethodological comfort with tension. It expresses desire for a fuller sense of meaning through the felt reality of their bodies, as they take up time and space and force their recognition. It is through this forced recognition – involving a certain hold on the world that they express the renewal of self that marks religious life. This involves dimension(s) of existence being available for examination for their religious meaning and significance. Rap music as a terrain for the articulation of religious struggleRead MoreExistentialism And The Existentialist Ideas Behind Existentialism1186 Words   |   5 Pagesin improving themselves and perhaps the world around them as well. Act while you can and strike while the iron is hot because once it is over there is nothing more. This, unfortunately, brings one of the negative associations of existentialism, that of despair. If there is nothing beyond your own personal existence there is little room for hope. Even if you have become the height of human experience, a light to the those around you, or you can see the world changing for the better on the horizon,Read MoreThe Reflection Of The Prayer1054 Words   |  5 Pagesinner peace, and moving on to tell Him about my day until suddenly I am deeply, happily asleep. There is only one issue: I do not believe in God. From a young age I made my mind up about religion, or at least made up for me. Growing up with an Agnostic mother and an Atheist dad who was a lawyer on the Los Angeles priest child molestation cases did not leave much room for religious exploration. Even as a child the word religion brought up frightening words in my mind: exclusion, rape, hell, punishment